Controlling the interactions between naturally derived or synthetic materials and biomolecule-containing fluids is of increasing importance in a variety of fields. For example, biomolecule interactions with a variety of substrate materials, i.e., surfaces, are central to numerous analytical systems, including immunodiagnostics, gene and protein microarrays, and microfluidic “lab-on-a-chip” devices. Analytical techniques such as capillary electrophoresis (CE), surface plasmon resonance (SPR), and quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) also intimately depend on biomolecule-surface interactions. Performance of biomedical devices including cardiovascular replacements (e.g., catheters, valves, stents), contact and intraocular lenses, shunts, filters, diaphragms, pumps, membranes, drug delivery devices and surgical components also depend on control of biomolecule-surface interactions. Maritime surfaces, including heat exchange units, ship-board components (e.g., hulls, superstructure), installations (pump derricks), docks, and environmentally exposed instruments also require control of biomolecule deposition (algae, fungus, microbial exudates) on their surfaces.
Of major common concern within these fields is the level of non-specific biomolecule (e.g., protein, organismal, nucleic acid) binding to target and device substrates. In non-sensing or non-diagnostic applications, this concern general focuses on surface-induced biofouling (deposition of biological material that compromises function). This is particularly problematic in biomedical devices and maritime applications. In medical, food, and environmental sensing and diagnostics, specificity, signal-to-noise ratios, and detection limits of a target analyte (e.g., polysaccharides, nucleic acid, drug, peptide or protein), often at limited concentrations in a milieu of non-target biomolecules (e.g., serum proteins), are limited by surface non-specific non-target (e.g., protein) binding on the substrate. Reduction or elimination of this non-specific binding noise will improve device performance, and enhance signal-to-noise ratios, detection sensitivity and specificity of many analytical systems.
Beyond analytical systems, the synthetic material-biological interface is central to the proper function of many biomedical devices. For example, non-specific binding of proteins at medical implant surfaces is believed to be at least partially responsible for triggering the foreign body response, which in turn can lead to device failure or rejection. This biofouling is also blamed for device infection incidence, thrombosis, and sensor deterioration over time in vivo. Alternatively, it has been hypothesized that implant surfaces that interact with target biomolecules in a specific manner can be used to stimulate natural healing, avoiding many adverse reactions from biofouling. In addition, numerous non-analytical and non-medical applications require direct control of surface-biological fluid interactions. Examples include non-fouling paints and anti-microbial coatings for industrial equipment, colloid and mineral handling systems, cooling systems, marine structures, and bioreactors used for production of biological products in vitro using biological components.
Improvements in these important fields all would benefit from development of improved surface chemistries where specific target binding, tethering or entrapment can be controlled versus non-specific deposition of undesired components. A core requirement of these surface chemistries is that the synthetic surfaces show reduced or limited non-specific binding (NSB) to non-targets, biomolecules, particles, or cells. NSB occurs through a variety of basic molecular-level adhesion mechanisms, including all combinations of electrostatic, hydration, hydrophobic, acid-base, dispersive and hydrogen bonding interactions. Soluble proteins, for example, generally ubiquitously and universally adsorb to a surface through combinations of these non-specific interactions, creating an adherent layer of biological material difficult to remove (a critical step in biofouling). Protein NSB often results in protein denaturation (loss of native structure) on surfaces that can prompt a cascade of additional NSB events (further adsorption of other proteins, cells, micro-organisms, etc., to the exposed interior of the denatured protein). This biofouling NSB cascade produces undesired infection, coagulation, inflammatory responses for biomedical implants, reduced signal-noise ratios for diagnostic assays and sensors, corrosion and deterioration for maritime and environmentally exposed structures, turbulence and reduced propulsion efficiency for maritime shipping, and undesired pressure drops and flow properties in capillaries, tubes and microfluidic chambers. Inhibition of protein and biomolecule NSB is thus an important performance feature in the design of improved synthetic materials that contact, function with, and operate in biological fluids.
While NSB to surfaces is most often undesirable, specific capture of designated biomolecules, particles, drugs or cells by binding at a target surface is often desirable. Examples include the specific binding of bioactive antibodies on a surface for immunoassay applications, specific binding of nucleic acid primers on a surface for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or genetic assays (microarrays), and specific binding of growth factors or antibiotics to surfaces to promote or hinder cell growth, respectively. The goal of such specific binding to a surface is to bind only one designated type of molecule, particle, or cell, to the target surface and to do so in a manner that preserves the recognition activity and native structure and function of the specifically bound molecule, particle or cell.
Thus, functional surface chemistries are needed that (1) inhibit non-specific binding of unwanted molecules, particles, or cells to a treated surface; (2) inhibit non-specific binding of unwanted molecules, particles, or cells to a treated surface while promoting specific biomolecule, particle, or cell binding, to that same surface; or (3) that inhibit non-specific binding of unwanted molecules, particles, or cells to a treated surface while promoting specific and functionally or biologically active biomolecule, particle, or cell binding, to that same surface.
Several strategies have been employed to create surfaces with these desired low non-specific binding properties. These strategies typically involve selection of coating chemistry or surface functional groups that exhibit low NSB and then fixing them to an underlying substrate. The fixing step may be based on physical adsorption or on direct covalent linkage (chemical coupling). From a performance perspective, the layer must exhibit robust bonding to the underlying support while maintaining low-NSB properties to the environment.
Surface coating strategies based on synthetic polymers have been the focus for development of most non-fouling coating applications. A. S. Hoffman, “Non-Fouling Surface Technologies,” Journal of Biomaterials Science: Polymer Edition 10, no. 10 (1999): 1011-1014; Poly(ethylene glycol): Chemistry and Biological Applications, ACS Symposium Series 680, J. Milton Harris and Samuel Zalipsky, Eds., American Chemical Society, 1997. Hydrophilic, polar, electrically neutral polymers such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) derivatives have received significant attention because of their long-acknowledged abilities to reduce protein NSB from solutions in coated formats. The challenge has been to effectively fix these and other similar water-soluble polymers to useful substrate materials at densities sufficient to impart effective NSB through contiguous coating. One approach has been to physically adsorb hydrophilic-hydrophobic block copolymers to hydrophobic supports. Hydrophobic interactions between the substrate and hydrophobic polymer block are sufficient to attach coating polymer molecules to the substrate while presenting the hydrophilic, low-NSB block to the aqueous surroundings. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,075,400 and 6,093,559. Problems with these physically adsorbed films, however, include reversible polymer desorption, particularly in challenging liquid environments (e.g., high salt, non-neutral pH, elevated temperature, shearing flow conditions, etc.), and the ability to achieve reproducible adsorbed densities effective to limit NSB.
Another approach to creating surfaces with low non-specific binding properties relates to the covalent coupling of low-NSB coating polymers to the target surface. PEG, for example, can be covalently grafted to substrates through reactive end groups introduced to the PEG molecule. U.S. Pat. No. 5,512,329. Azido chemistry and quinone chemistry are two photo-reactive end group examples for such fixation to polymer substrates. A disadvantage of this approach is that it is confined to coating particular types of polymer supports where this coupling chemistry is effective and available. Attachment to interesting inorganic substrates such as glass or metals requires some intermediate substrate attachment layer, which adds to the cost, time consumption, and overall effectiveness of the coating procedure. One particular example of this procedure relies on PEG-silanes used to create coatings on active metal oxide surfaces (glass, silica, titania, alumina and others). In this system, a PEG molecule is derivatized with alkoxysilane or chlorosilane terminal reactive groups. Hydrolysis and chemical condensation of the reactive silanes presumably serve to anchor the PEG molecules to oxide substrates such as glass or silicon oxide with exposed surface silanol groups. Despite their initial promise, PEG-silane surfaces are difficult to reproduce practically. It is believed that the terminal alkyl silane reactive groups hydrolyze in solution and then react with each other in the bulk solution, prior to attachment to the substrate, yields poorly defined films (reactive groups cross-react with each other rather than to anchor the PEG-silane to the surface) allowing for a partial physically adsorbed polymer coating mixed with some fraction of chemical attachment. Control of this for reliable coating and low NSB is difficult.
An alternative to forming a polymer film for blocking non-specific binding on a substrate is to inhibit the non-specific binding to the substrate with a biomolecule-blocking step (masking). The most common practice in this respect is to pre-adsorb substrates with soluble bovine serum albumin (BSA), casein, or serum. These proteins (or proteins in the serum) adsorb strongly to most surfaces from aqueous solution, providing an adsorbed protein layer that minimizes subsequent non-specific binding of other biomolecules. While such protein blocking has proven to be functionally effective, the blocking step is time consuming, labor intensive, and subject to reproducibility problems. In addition, there is a general desire to move away from the use of animal and serum-derived products in surface chemistry applications for safety reasons.
Thus a perceived improvement in the art is a solid-phase surface coating capable of consistently strong, direct and effective attachment to a variety of substrate materials. The surface should reliably exhibit low non-specific binding properties and should be easy to use (i.e., should require no blocking steps). Ideally, the surface chemistry should also provide a means for immobilizing chemically reactive coupler or functional groups on the surface, which in turn exhibit strong specific attachment properties for desired target immobilization onto surfaces. Against this backdrop of technical challenges and current limitations in the field, the present invention has been developed.